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The Religion of the Brahmo Samaj
Free texts and images.
| The Religion of the Brahmo Samaj written by Hem Chandra Sarkar |
| First edition, 1906. Second edition, 1911. |
Chapter I. A Historical Sketch of the Brahmo Samaj
Reform movement in Hinduism
From the earliest times the history of Hinduism has been marked by repeated endeavours at reform. Almost at every epoch there has been some effort to purge and purify the current religion and to establish in is place the spiritual worship of the One True God. From the times of the Rishis of the Upanishads there has scarcely been a generation but, in some part of India or other, some nobly inspired soul has raised his protest against the idolatry, unspirituality and ceremonialism of the popular religion.
A unique epoch in Indian History
Gautama Buddha, Nanak, Kabir, Tukaram, Sri Chaitanya are only a few of the more prominent and successful spirits amongst a host of religious reformers in the long, mostly unwritten annals of Hinduism. The Brahmo Samaj is the latest attempt at religious reform in Modern India, and Rajab Ram Mohun Roy a direct lineal descendant of the Rishis and saints of Hindusthan.
Brahmoism, the Religion of Future Humanity
Modern India represents an epoch of great interest and importance. In the history of India it has a unique significance, never before did the country pass through such a momentous change in all spheres of national life. The political, social, industrial structure of the nation is undergoing a radical transformation. Nay, we may say that in Modern India is being enacted a momentous drama of world-wide interest.
Brahmoism, the religion of Future Humanity: Now and here, for the first time in the history of the world, the Eastern and Western civilisations, like two mighty rivers after a long parallel march, have at last met together at the feet of the Himalayas to give birth to a truer, fuller and completer civilisation for future humanity; and Brahmoism is the religion of that future humanity born of the union of the East and the West.
Ram Mohun the prophet of the World Religion: To its founder, Rajah Ram Mohun Roy, was vouchsafed the sublime ideal of a universal religion which knew no barriers of caste, colour, race or nationality but united men and women of all classes and countries in the spiritual worship of the One Eternal God, the Creator and Father of all.
His close aqaintenace with Hindu, Buddhist, Mohammedan and Christian Cultures: Ram Mohun Roy was eminently fitted, as though by a special ordination of God, to be the prophet of this world-religion, in that he combined and harmonised in himself the spiritual culture of all the great existing religions. Born and brought up in an orthodox Hindu family and possessed of a thorough and intimate knowledge of the profound spiritual culture and vast religious literature of Hinduism, the Rajah early in his life came into close contact with Islam and made an earnest study of its literature. Later in his career, he made a strenuous and searching study of Christianity, having learnt Greek and Hebrew in order to be able to study the Bible in the original. He had also opportunities of being acquainted with Buddhism in close quarters, having spent some time in Tibet in search of religious truth in early manhood when turned out of home by his father on account of his bold religious speculations.
Ram Mohun’s message and method: After a varied and eventful career, in the course of which he traveled far and wide even beyond the borders of India to the then unknown Tibet, learnt sixteen languages and studied the Hindu, Mahommadan, Jewish and Christian Scriptures in original, he at length settled down to Calcutta in 18L4, at the age of forty, with the object of propagating his religion among his countrymen and the world at large. To this task he consecrated all his resources. time, power and energy.
Foundation of the Brahmo Samaj
For fourteen years he laboured on his mission, delivering his message in earnest conversation to the circle of friends who clustered round him and through written discourses to the wider public. The generality of Hindus and Christians failed to understand him and attacked him vehemently. Rajah Ram Mohun Roy tried to silence both by the authority of their own respective scriptures. To the Hindu opponent he showed that the most ancient and authoritative scriptures of Hinduism enjoined the worship of One Eternal God who is without form or shape; to the Christian he proved that the religion of Jesus was the pure universal theism of the Fatherhood of God and the Brotherhood of Man. Single-handed and under very trying circumstances, he fought against the assaults of bigoted Hindus and orthodox Christians to establish the universal religion of ‘One God, one humanity’, till at length on the 2nd August, 1828, he succeeded in organising a weekly meeting for the worship of God irrespective of caste and creed in a hired house in the northern part of Calcutta.The First Congregation: Two years later, with the help of some friends, he erected a modest building for the Theistic Church or the Brahmo Samaj, as it came to be called, in a central part of Calcutta; and this exists and is known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj.
Here, week after week, a motley gathering used to meet for the worship of the One God without regard to caste, creed or colour. The worship consisted in reciting verses from the Upanishads and singing hymns and reading religious discourses written by Ram Mohun Roy. Prior to this public service, portions of the Vedas used to be read by Brahmins in a back-room to which only Brahmins were admitted.
Ram Mohun’s visit to England and Death
In August 1830, Rajah Ram Mohun Roy embarked for England, leaving the infant church in the care of Ram Chandra Vidyabagish. And there he died on the Brahmo Samaj in Calcutta gradually 27th September, 1833. in the meanwhile, languished; most of its members, who had been drawn to it mainly through the influence of Rajah Ram Mohun Roy, ceased to take any interest in it after his departure for England. Only the faithful Ram Chandra Vidyabagish remained steadfast; and for seven years he regularly and punctually conducted the weekly service, as directed by Rajah, often alone like the solitary watcher by the dim burning pyre at the burning ghat. At length, help came from an unexpected quarter.
Conversion of Devendra Nath Tagore
In the year 1838, Devendra Nath Tagore, eldest son of Dwarka Nath Tagore, a friend and fellow-worker of Rajah Ram Mohun Roy, began to take interest in the l3rahmo Samaj. As a boy, Devendra Nath had often seen Rajah Rain Mohun Roy and had been, in fact, a pet of his. It is said the Rajah foresaw the young boy would grow to carry on his own life-work.
But, for many years, there was no sign of any religious tendency or interest in Devendra Nath. His early youth was like that of any other scion of wealthy families. In the year 1838, while attending on his grand-mother in her last moments at the burning-ghat, a strange feeling came over him : he experienced an indescribable joy in the felt presence of God. The pleasures and riches of the world appeared trivial to him. From that time a great change came over his life. He spent many days in meditation and felt that the idols they worshipped were nor God, that God was one and could not be perceived by the senses. Then the memory of Rajah Ram Mohun Roy came back to him ;he inquired about his Brabmo Samaj and sent for its Minister, Ram Chandra Vidyabagish.
Tattwabodhini Sabha
Devendra Nath began to read the Upanishads under Ram Chandra Vidyabagish and established a society. the Tattwabodhini Sabha, for the study and diffusion of the ancient Theistic literature of India. This institution, which was at first composed of the brothers and cousins of Dvendra Nath, began to expand rapidly. Ram Chandra Vidyabagish was appointed its minister ; its anniversary was celebrated with great eclat in 1840. The Brahmo Samaj at this Lime was at the lowest ebb of its life. Fortunately, the Tattwabodhini Sabha came to its rescue at this juncture. The members resolved to take charge of it; the separate monthly service of the Tattwa Bodhini Sabha was discontinued and they began to attend the services of the Brabmo Samaj. Through their youthful energy and enthusiasm the Brahmo Samaj soon revived; and a period of great and growing activity followed. The faithful old Minister of the Brahmo Samaj, Pandit Ram Chandra Vidyabagish, had at last the satisfaction of seeing his devotion rewarded. Bit for his loyal perseverance, the sapling planted by Rajab Ram Mohun Roy might have perished in the dark days following the death of the founder.
Rapid progress of the Brahmo Samaj under fostering care of Devendra Nath
The Brahmo Sama; now passed into the safe keeping of Devendra Nath. Drawn by his influence, many young men joined the Samaj. His active mind devised many new measures for the development of the Samaj. 1 1842 the Tattwabodhfni Patrika was founded as the organ of the Brahmo Samaj. which exercised a very powerful influence over the rising generation of Bengal. The Brahmo Samaj, up to the time when Maharshi Devendra Nath Tagore joined it, was nothing but a motley congregation which occasionally met together in a half-serious, half-comical mood for listening to hymns, recitations from the Sanskrit Scriptures and religious discourses. There was neither any definite aim nor any settled conviction. The noble provision of the Trust Deed about the equal rights of all without regard to caste, creed or nationality was openly violated by disallowing the presence of nonbrahmins at the reading of the Vedas; doctrines about idolatry and incarnation were often preached from the pulpit. No sooner had Maharshi Devendra Nath joined the Brahmo Samaj than he turned his attention to rectifying these irregularities. Institution of a Brahmo Covenant and Initiation: Under his influence and inspiration, it soon developed into a purely theistic congregation, He found that those who came to the service of the Brahmo Samaj were not inspired and animated by one common Conviction. In their individual lives and at their homes they were idolaters as the ordinary Hindus.
Nucleus of a Brahmo Community
In order to make the Brahmo Samaj a body of men believing in the One True God and worshipping Him in truth and spirit only, Devendra Nath drew up a Brahmo convenant containing a number of vows enjoining the renunciation of idolatry, the worship of the One Only in the Vedanta and the practice of virtue. God as described Devendra Nath himself took the lead in being initiated into Brahmoism by Ram Chandra Vidyabagish by signing this Covenant in Dec. 1843 ; twenty of his friends followed him in this new and momentous departure, Thus was formed the nucleus of a Brahmo community; and by 1874 the number of covenanted Brahmos rose to 767.
Infallibility of Vedas discarded
Up to this time, Brahmoism was tacitly under stood to be based on the Upanishads. In his religious controversies, Rajah Ram Mohun Roy used to refute the arguments of his Hindu opponents by citing passages from the Upanishada in support of his views, as, in his Controversies with Christian opponents, he would refute theirs by the authority of the Bible. In order to show to his countrymen that all Hindu scriptures were not idolatrous, he published some of the Upanishads in original Sanskrit and also translated them into English and Bengali. His followers took it to mean that he based Brahmoism on the Upanishads. The religion of the Brahmo Samaj at the beginning was, known to be Vedantisrn. The doctrine of the infallibility of the Vedas was tacitly accepted by the Brahmo Samaj. It found a stimulus in the ill-feeling against the Christian missionaries which was at that time raging strong on account of the conversion of a Hindu lad of a respectable family into Christianity.
Compilation of Brahmo Dharma: Though the genesis of Devendra Nath’s own faith in Brahmoisrn was independent of the Upanishads. he had a great reverence and predilection for them and was rather disposed to accept them as the basis of Brahmoism, rejecting all other Hindu scriptures including the Samhitas. But by this time a younger generation had grown up who were not ready to accept even the Upanishads as infallible. The controversy went on in the Brahmo Samaj for several years. Maharshi Devendra Nath had the question carefully considered. He sent four students to Benares to study the four Vedas. He himsif went to Benares to discuss the question with reputed Vedic teachers. At last, to his great regret, he found that the doctrine of the infallibility of the Vedas or of the Upanishads was untenable and, much against his natural inclination, he gave it up in 1848; thus the early Vedantic Unitarianism came to be superseded by natural Universal Theism. Soon after, he compiled a book called the Brahmo Dharma, a collection of theistic passages from the Upanishads dictated by him from memory and taken down by Babu Akshaya Kumar Dutt, the whole work being finished in two hours.
Missionary Activities of Devendra Nath
All these changes were formally announced during the anniversary festival of 1850, which was now being celebrated on the 11th of Magh, the day on which the Prayer Hall at the Chitpore Road had been consecrated. The reconstructed Samaj entered upon a carer of great propagandistic activity. Maharshi Devendra Nath visited different parts of the country and established many new Samajas in mofussil towns. He also trained up a small band of preachers who carried the message of Brahmoism throughout Bengal. For several years the work went on with unabated enthusiasm. In 1857 Maharshi Devendra Nath retired to the Himalayan regions near Simla to spend his days in study, meditation and communion. 1-Ic had no desire to return to the bustle and tumult of society. But, at the end of a year and a half, one day he felt a distant call to go down and work among his countrymen, however unpleasant the task might be. Sorely against his will he came back to Calcutta. The result was a period of unusual sctivity and enthusiasm in the Brabmo Samaj. The sermons he used to deliver at this time from the pulpit of the Samaj kindled a new fire among the younger generation.
Association of Keshub Chandra Sen with Maharshi Debendra Nath
Already during the absence of Maharshi Devendra Nath, Babu Keshub Chandra Sen joined the Brabmo Samaj. The kindred souls soon recognised each other. Keshub looked upon Maharshi with unbounded regard and love, and Maharshi rejoiced at the accession of this gifted young man from a respectable family and treated him with fatherly affection and solicitude. For a time they worked together in perfect harmony and their combined influence created a new life among the younger generation of Calcutta and Bengal. Hundreds of young men joined the Samaj. The younger party threw themselves heart and soul into the work of propagation. They went about to all parts of the country preaching the new faith, establishing new Samajes and gaining many sympathisers for the cause. In 1864, Babu Keshub Chandra Sen visited Madras and Bombay; and his visit was instrumental in rousing public interest in the cause in those parts and as a consequence the Veda Samaj of Madras was established in that year and the Prarthana Samaj of Bombay caine into existence in 1867. The Veda Samaj. after undergoing many reverses of fortune, was finally transformed into the Southern India Brahmo Samaj.
Idolatry and Caste strictly interdicted
There was also a great development in the faith and practice of the Brahmo Samaj during this period. The Brahmos, though they had ceased to worship idols, were not able to get rid of caste distinctions as yet. On occasions of domestic ceremonies, such as, marriages, sraddhas (funeral rites) &c., they stil1 to t to idolatrous practices, Young Keshub and his friends declared that such association with idolatry was inconsistent and unworthy and they resolved strictly to abjure idolatry and caste. Maharshi Devendra Nath had already shown the way by refusing, against the universal wish of his relatives and to the consternation of the entire Calcutta society, to perform the sraddha of his father according to orthodox Hindu rites in 1846. But so far none had dared to follow him. Now at last in Keshub and his young friends he found the men after his mind. He heartly sympathised with the new aspirations of the younger generation1 he himself threw away his ‘sacrificial thread’. (First Brahmo Marriage:) In 1861, Malarshi Devendra Nath married one of his daughters according to Brahmo rites ; other Brahmo marriages followed. (Differences between Devendra Nath and Keshub Chandra:) For a time the progress of the Brahmo Samaj, both within and without, was rapid and extensive. But unfortunately within a few years differences sprang up between Devendra Nath and Keshub. The immediate cause of the misunderstanding was in the old ministers of the Brahmo Samaj who still retained the sacrificial thread. Keshub insisted that those who retained these symbols of idolatry and caste should not be allowed to officiate as ministers. Maharshi Devendra Nath felt unwilling to deal harshly with old members and workers. Keshub was supported by the younger generation, while the older members naturally stood by Devendra Nath. Thus there grew up two parties, the conservative and the progressive, in the Brahmo Samaj. Devendra Nath at first yielded; those of the old ministers who retained the sacred thread were not allowed to conduct the service and in their place two younger men of the progressive party who had formally given up caste were appointed as assistant ministers.
First Inter-caste Marriage
About this time the progressive party solemnised an intercaste marriage in the Brahrno Samaj. This further alarmed Maharshi Devendra Nath. Soon after, he reinstalled the old ministers without Consulting the progressive party. - protested against it. As the sole surviving trustee of the Samaj, Devendra Nath withdrew all the powers he had conceded to the younger men, dismissed them from their offices and removed the Tattwabodhini Patrika from under their management. (The First Schism:)Babu Keshub Chandra Sen and the progressive party tried for some time to preserve the union and retain their hold on the affairs of the church by orginising a Pratinidhi Sabha or representative association. (Foundation of the Brahmo Samaj in India :) But, failing in this, they formed themselves into a separate organisation called the Brahmo Samaj of India in November, 1866. The bulk of the younger and progressive Brahmos joined the Brahmo Samaj of India, the work of which was carried on with great vigour and enthusiasm. Freed from the restraining influence of the conservative party, the Brahmo Samaj of India now entered on a career of reform and expansion all round. The work of propagation was taken up with laudable zeal. Missionaries of the Brahmo Samaj of India began to visit every part of the country. Books and pamphlets on Brahmoismn were issued in rapid succession. In 1870, Babu Keshub Chandra Sen, accompanied by a few friends, paid a visit to England, where he was well received by the British public and succeeded in creating a lively interest in the Brahmo Samaj.
Developments under the Brahmo Samaj of India
Internally also the foundation of the Brahmo Samaj of India was followed by many radical changes and developments. One important departure under the Brahmo Samaj of India was in the direction of greater catholicity. Under Devendra Nath the Brahmo Samaj had confined itself practically to Hindu influence and inspiration. Keshub Chandra Sen gave it a more universal character. He began to draw upon the scriptures and living inspirations of all the principal historical religions of the world. Devendra Nath, as we have already seen, had compiled a Manual of Brahmoism from the Upanishads. Now as a mark of the catholicicy of its principles, a book was published under the auspices of the Brahmo Samaj of India containing passages from all religious scriptures. Another remarkable feature of the Brahmo Sarnaj of India was the substitution of the vernacular. Bengali, in place of Sanskrit in Brahmo liturgy. Greater simplicity and spontaneity were allowed in the divine serviccs. Individual lives as well as prayer meetings were marked by greater devotional fervour. Sentiments about prayer, repentance and conscience gained wider currency in the Samaj. (Passing of Act III of 1872:)Of all these developments Keshub Chandra Sen was the soul. Under his leadership, the progressive Brahmos moved the Government of India to clear up the uucertainty as to the legality of the Brahmo marriage and got a law passed in the year 1872, thenceforth known as Act III of 1872, which laid down fourteen as the minimum marriageable age for women and eighteen for men.
Dissatisfaction for want of a constitution
Things went on well for some time. But ultimately Keshub Chandra Sen also failed to retain the confidence of the entire, growing body of his followers. With- the Brahmo Samaj of India, again, there appeared a progressive section which did not like the latter-day autocratic methods of Sen. They clamoured for representative organisations for conducting the work of the Samaj and for more radical reform in social life, specially as regards the position of women. Under an apparently smooth and prosperous surface, there was a strong pent-up dissatisfaction with the methods of Keshub and his immediate encourage.
(The Cooch Behar Marriage:) At this juncture, there happened a fateful event in the history of the Brahmo Samaj. In the beginning of 1878, the Brahmo Community was taken by surprise at the intelligence of the proposed marriage of the eldest daughter of Babu Keshub Chandra Sen with the young Maharaja of Cooch Behar. Both the bride and the bridegroom were below the minimum marriageable age, fourteen and eighteen respectively, fixed by Babu Keshub Chandra Sen himself and adopted by the Brahmo community. The bridegroom was not a Brahmo; and it was rumoured that the marriage was to be celebrated according to the idolatrous Hindu ritual of the Cooch Behar Raj family. Earnest protests poured in from many Samajes and individual Brahmos, expressing the widespread concern of the whole Brahmo community. It was feared that such a compromise with the principles of the Brahmo Samaj by its leader and minister would discredit and ruin the cause irretrievably. Babu Keshub Chandra Sen gave no heed to the protests and proceeded in person to Cooch Bchar to celebrate the marriage. When it actually came off, the requirements of a Brahmo marriage were dispensed with and there were other features highly objectionable in the eyes of the Brahmos.
The second schism
As Babu Keshub Chandra Sen returned from Cooch Behar, the protesters wanted to move a vote of censure against him at a meeting of the Brahmo Samaj of India but Babu Keshub Chandra Sen, who was the Secretary of the Samaj, foiled their attempts by putting obstacles in the way of holding the meeting. They, however, passed a resolution at a meeting of the congregation deposing him from the office of Minister. But Babu Keshub Chandra Sen did not give any heed to constitutional laws of the Samaj and forcibly retained the post of Minister with the help of the Police. The protesters in despair and indignation formed themselves into a separate organisation, called the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, the work of which would be carried on according to strictly constitutional methods.
Inauguration of Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
The Sadharan Brahmo Samaj was formally inaugurated at a public meeting held in the Town Hall of Calcutta in May, 1878. The majority of the mofussil Samajes associated themselves with it. The first care of the new organisation was to provide against the possibility of the assumption of all power by one person. enabling him to set at naught the views and opinions of the entire body, as had been the case On the occasion of both the schisms. A thoroughly representative constitution was given to the new body. The governing body was to be elected annually by the votes of the entire body of members, The mofussil Samajes were entitled to send their representatives to the governing body. The new organisation soon became the main channel of Theistic life and work in India. By 1880, a spacious Prayer-Hall in the central part of Calcutta was constructed for it.
Renewed effort of Keshub Chandra Sen
Babu Keshub Chandra Sen and those Brahmos who remained with him also redoubled their energy. They were in possession of the Prayer-Hall and all the properties and resources of the old united Samaj, and had thus a great advantage over the new organisation. Moreover, almost all the missionaries, personally very much attached to Babu Keshub Chandra Sen, stood by him. With their loyal co-operation he sent out mission parties to different parts of the country. He also introduced many novel mystic forms of religious practice and in 1880 he changed the name of his Church into the ‘New Dispensation’ and selected twelve of his missionaries to be called the Apostles of the New Dispensation. Keshub’s Death: His unique career, however, was soon cut short by the hand of death. The strenuous labours of the past years and the pain caused by the secession of the majority of Brahmos and Brahmo Samajes and by the internal dissensions among his own missionaries told heavily on his health; and in January 1884, he passed away from this world. After his death, the Church of the New Dispensation became still more disorganised. The apostles and missionaries could not agree among themselves. But, though the common organisation has broken down, many of the missionaries have been individually carrying on the work with exemplary devotion and self. sacrifice.
Progress under the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
The foundation of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj was marked by another outburst of propagandist activity. There was a general enthusiasm among the Brahmo public. Many new congregations were organised and old congregations drawn closer, forming an influential Church. Several new and powerful institutions were started in Calcutta, which have ever since been doing valuable work in the field of religious and social reform. The organisation of the Brahmo Samaj seems now to have at last found a stable form. More than thirty years have elapsed since the formation of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj. But, whereas the previous thirty years witnessed two violent and disastrous schisms, the subsequent history has been one of smooth, steady growth. In the free atmosphere of a progressive church like the Brahmo Samaj, differences of opinion are inevitable and natural. Such differences there undoubtedly are among the members of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj ; but with its broad, liberal, representative constitution founded on the principle of unity in essentials, difference in non essentials and charity in all, men and women of all shades of theistic belief have found it possible to co-operate for the glory of God and the good of man.
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